Congo Images
As in many traditional societies, the people of Central Africa seldom make art to be admired solely for its aesthetic value. Instead, objects such as masks, power figures, reliquaries and images of culture heroes have other purposes. They impart values, reenact historical events, and express cultural beliefs. Indeed, the craftspeople perceive them more as tools than art objects. Although there is considerable room for creativity and personal expression, there are often strict rules about what the object must look like in order to convey the appropriate meaning to the audience.
These masks and figures come from the Congo region of Central Africa. This region is home to hundreds of ethnic groups, including the Kuba, Luba, Chokwe, Bakota, Kongo, Yaka, Saampasu, and Songye, all of whom speak Bantu languages. Although there is considerable cultural variation, most of the people live by combining farming with food gathering and raising goats and sheep. In the northern part of this region, most groups figure descent through the female or matrilineal line, whereas patrilineal descent dominates in the south. Political organization ranges from tribal kingdoms with royal families and chiefdoms to more decentralized societies with power resting in the hands of village and lineage elders.
These wood, bone, metal, and stone objects were made during the middle of the twentieth century. Many of these objects are used in celebrations of important life cycle events, such as birth, circumcision, and death. Some of the objects are associated with the power of leaders and legendary ancestors, while others protect individuals from disease or witchcraft.
Kongo Ntadi
Members of the Kongo culture most likely carved these four figures of seated men. Kongo was a large and prosperous kingdom that dominated the Lower Congo River region when the Portuguese explored Central Africa in the 15th century. European contact instigated the collapse of Kongo by the mid-16th century into independent villages.
The ntadi, which means guardian, adorned the graves of important people, such as chiefs. These chiefly images may have been kept in special huts to represent the chief while he was traveling or fighting enemies. 
The of the figures sit on thrones that, in real life, would have held relics and insignia of earlier rulers. These objects symbolized the chief’s descent from the ancient royal lineage, reaffirming his right to power. These figures are made of stone called steatite that is quarried from a range of mountains at Noki, near the town of Matadi, which means “stones”. Steatite is soft and easy to work. Once exposed to air, it hardens and acquires a gray patina. Ntadi
may have been carved as far back as 300 years ago. Recent ntadi are smaller than earlier versions and often wear European-style clothing.
Yaka Initiation Mask
This large horned mask is typical of masks used by the Yaka. The word Yaka means “the strong ones”. The Yaka occupy territory along the Kwango River. Their society is comprised of a local peasant population that was conquered by a group of fierce nomadic hunters-warriors.
These masks are used in male initiation rites, the most important event in a young Yaka boy’s life. Boys called tundansi who are ready for initiation retreat to an enclosure at a secret place far from the village to attend the so-called NkandaBush School. During their seclusion, the boys speak a ritual language and obey dietary and behavioral taboos. The boys undergo circumcision called muskanda. They learn leadership and administrative skills, as well as new songs and dances.
At the end of the initiation, the candidates perform dances wearing elaborate masks to celebrate their return to normal life in the village. This joyous event celebrates the boys’ new status and the responsibilities of adulthood. Such ceremonies promote unity among initiates and, thereby, the community at large. The initiates also entertain people in other villages with these masks to earn admiration and money.
The masks vary in design, because each group of initiates intentionally makes masks that look different from those of other groups. Sometimes magical substances that cause harm or cure ailments are stuffed into the horns. Bushy neck fringes made of raffia fibers adorn the masks. Yaka masks incorporate both human and animal elements. According to oral tradition, a warrior prayed to the Supreme Being to restore his failing strength. The Supreme Being told the warrior to create a mask, which would make him powerful against his enemies.
Songye Power Figures
The Songye probably made this power figure. They are a large group, which lives between the Sankuru and Lualaba rivers. The style of their art is similar to art produced by the neighboring Kuba and Luba. These objects reflect the 
importance of magic in Songye society. Characteristic of power figures from this region are the large heavily lidded eyes, flat triangular noses, broad open mouths, large feet, and hands placed on the abdomen.
Individuals made offerings to power figures so they would intercede with deities in order to promote fertility, ward off disease, and protect them from enemies and witchcraft. Entire villages occasionally appealed to large statues -- as tall as five feet – for protection against major disasters such as disease, drought, crop failure, or war. These figures were kept in houses at the center of the village.
The figures’ abdomens contain pieces of horn,
skin, teeth, metal rings, tacks and cloth. These substances, called bijimba, were believed to have magical power due to their connection with taboos. These ingredients were also applied as decoration on the figure; placed inside the umbilical plug and head; or inserted into horns protruding from the body. Feathers on the armbands and body scarification were also symbols of magic and power. A thick layer of oil was applied to the figures so they would retain their powers.
Luba and Songye Kifwebe Masks
An artist of Luba ancestry created the round kifwebe mask to the right, while the Songye made the large elongated mask below. The Luba live in the Katanga province of the Democratic Republic of Congo to the south of the Songye. A Songye king originally founded the Luba Empire. The Luba took over in the 16th century, although the Songye who lived farther south remained independent.
The ruling elites of the Songye and Luba belong to a closed society called bwadi bwa kifwebe. It is believed that members of this society possess the powers of sorcery, which they use to enforce the political power of the rulers. The word kifwebe means “to chase away or put to flight or death”.
Making these masks is done in secret. Initiates to the kifwebe society perform rites that attract ancestral spirits, who take possession of the masks. These masks preserve the power of the ancestors for their descendents. They are used to enforce social control of women and children and to compel the wealthy to give to the less fortunate. The masks may have been worn during royal ceremonies and in dances on the night of the new moon to honor the ancestors. They may also have taken part in masked dances called makaye a kifwebe to celebrate the arrival of important visitors or to commemorate the death or appointment of a village dignitary.
Interestingly, the Songye claim the Luba began the kifwebe society, whereas the Luba attribute its origin to the Songye. In fact, the Songye employ the Luba language when wearing the masks, while the Luba speak Songye.
The Luba mask is very similar to the Songye mask below in its concentric design, pronounced nose, and box-like mouth. However, its hemispherical shape is characteristic of Luba masks from the Hemba-Luba region. Kifwebe masks are usually found in male and female pairs, and are worn as parts of full-length costumes made from animal skins and raffia.
The black and white striations, called bikoko, on the Luba mask indicate that it is female. The Songye mask is male, as indicated by the prominent crest on the forehead, which extends down the face to form the nose. The red, white and black coloration also marks the mask as male. Although the Luba and Songye masks share facial ridges and grooves, protruding mouthes, and stripes of alternating colors, the elongated shape indicates the Songye origin of the large mask.
The masks combine features that are associated with certain powerful and often dangerous animals. For instance, the eyes are said to be the “holes of termites” or “the swelling of sorcerers”. The incised grooves are derived from animals such as the zebra and snake. Raffia fibers that are often attached through holes in the chin depict the mane of a lion.
Bena Luluwa Pfingu
A member of the Bena Luluwa tribe carved this statue. The Bena Luluwa live between the Kasai and Sankuru rivers south of the Kuba in the Congo Basin. Traditionally, they lived in a decentralized society, made up of small, independent clans who relied on family ties for social order.
The proportions, belt decoration, and abundant body scarifications are typical of Bena Luluwa woodcarvings. The posture and size of the figure’s feet reflect stability and power. Such figures, called pfingu, are usually used to bless young children with good health, beauty, and fortune. They are also thought to ward off eye and skin disease and other evil forces. These figures are often carved holding a cup in the left hand, which may symbolize containers for herbs and medicines. The extensive markings on this figure are consistent with the Bena Luluwa belief that scarification is a mark of beauty.
Bakota Reliquary
The Bakota of eastern Gabon and western Congo are a patrilineal society that values communication with and reverence for their dead ancestors. They are famous for their reliquary figures known as mbulu ngulu or osyeba. The Bakota place their ancestors’ bones in wicker baskets that are fit into a hole at the base of the reliquary. As seen in the reliquary to the front, the sculptures are made of wood overlain by strips of sheet brass and copper. The highly valued metal originally came from European basins thattraders brought into Gabon. The eyes on these reliquaries are often emphasized, as if the ancestors are watching over the community.
The Bakota believe that the bones of important ancestors such as judges, chiefs, craftsmen, and religious practitioners retain the power that they had accrued during their lifetime. The reliquaries are kept in houses of family headmen where offerings are made to the ancestors in order to ensure fertility, health, prosperity, and success in hunting. Villages also hold ceremonial dances during which the reliquaries are brought out to assist the entire community. Interestingly, reliquaries have frequently been sold to collectors, but the baskets and bones are treasured.
Kuba Royal Masks
The Kuba live at the fork of the Kasai and Sankuru rivers, tributaries of the great Congo River. Their society consists of eighteen culturally diverse, allied tribes. Bushoong tribal leaders founded this union of states in the 17th century. The king received tribute from allied chiefs and directly controlled the Bushoong chiefs who belonged to the royal clan. The king’s power declined as a result of colonial rule during the 19th century.
The three Kuba masks displayed in this case represent legendary culture heroes from their mythical past. 
These masks are so important that each has its own special name. Only the king could give permission for their use or manufacture. Mwaash a mbooy represents royal power and depicts Woot, the first mythical ancestor of the Kuba and leader of the Bushoong. Ngaady mwaash is Woot’s wife and sister. Mboom depicts the king’s brother who is jealous of his wife and symbolizes opposition to the king’s authority.
These masks are worn in dances during initiation rites and royal occasions. The elephant trunk version of Woot’s mask is brought out for the funerals of important people. The masks serve as metaphors for the mythical beginnings of Kuba kingship and the founding of the Kuba nation. They are used to reenact core mythological events and to send appeals to the ancestors. The dances also recreate the competition between Woot and Mboom for the attentions of their sister. They are dramatic affairs that often include violent or humorous actions. The incestuous relationship separates these culture heroes from the secular world of mortals where incest is forbidden.
The sumptuous decoration of shells, beads, cloth, fur and bright pigments is reserved for royal articles like these masks. Shells and beads are traditional trade items in Kuba society, and indicate royal wealth and prestige.
All three dancers would have also donned body costumes of bark or raffia cloth. Because the masked figures are supposed to be spirits, no part of the dancers’ bodies could be visible to the audience. The Ngaady costume would have resembled the ensemble of the other two dancers but with female attributes including a woman’s loincloth and two pointed wooden breasts.
The masses of white cowrie shells on the Mwaash a mbooy mask are a symbol of mourning. White evokes death and the desiccated bones of the ancestors. This type of mask usually ended up in the graves of the kings.
The pattern of light and dark triangular shapes on the feminine Ngaady mwaash mask is most likely drawn from textiles for which the Kuba are famous. The lines down the cheeks are referred to as tears (byoosh’dy). This mask would have been worn with a headdress of raffia cloth and placed toward the back of the head, because it lacks perforated eyeholes.
The Mboom mask is usually made of wood and sometimes antelope leather. Dancers see through the nose holes. Beads on the temples represent ethnic tattoos. Unlike the Mwaash mask, families keep this type of mask as a symbol of their family’s continuity.
Chokwe Figure
The Chokwe live to the southwest of Katanga province in the Democratic Republic of Congo along the Lulua and Kasai rivers. According to oral tradition, a Luba king disinherited his sons and gave the insignia of power to his daughter. The youngest son, Tshiniama, formed the kingdom of Chokwe. The son of the ruling sister founded the Luba Empire to which the Chokwe paid tribute. In 1885, the Chokwe rebelled against the Luba and expanded into new territories. Trade of ivory and rubber generated great wealth for the Chokwe kingdom toward the end of the 19th century, but disease, colonialism, and over-expansion finally led to political disintegration.
Craftspeople occupy a prominent status in the stratified Chokwe society. They are renown for carving human figures for use in the royal court. These figures (like the example to the right) are often modeled after individuals who are considered local beauties. Their art contrasts in style from the art of their Kuba and Luba neighbors. Rather than emphasizing particular body parts such as the mouth, the Chokwe are concerned with the overall design of their pieces. They show movement and pay attention to details all the way around the figure rather than on the front only. Important cultural markings are often evoked by brass-headed nails, as are found on this statue’s headdress.
Chokwe figures often portray chiefs or culture heroes. Statues wearing hunting garb depict Tshibinda Llunga, a hunting hero. Unlike the individualistic renderings of the chiefs, this hero has particular attributes that are restricted to his character. For instance, he wears a long beard to indicate that he is a member of the upper strata of society.
Salampasu Circumcision Mask
Salampasu warriors made the maskwith the woven balls on the head and suspended from the chin. The Salampasu are a minor tribe who live around the city of Luiza. Their name means “hunters of locusts”. Despite their relative lack of political power, their fighting prowess is widely feared by their neighbors. Indeed, they have fought for autonomy from the surrounding Luba and Lunda peoples.
Most Salampasu masks are used in dances and meetings organized by societies of warriors called mungongo. Membership in these societies is usually reserved for people from important lineages. To obtain the right to wear these masks, warriors must pay the initiation fee into the society and perform a set of prescribed tasks. Each mask represents a title or rank within the society. Therefore, the use of the mask reflects both association membership as well as economic status. When a renowned warrior dies, his funeral includes performances with his masks. The masks are also worn at important events in life, such as circumcision.
The Salampasu make a wide variety of masks that are very distinctive in appearance from the masks of the larger tribes surrounding them. Bulbous foreheads, prominent noses, and pointed teeth characterize their masks. This circumcision mask is made of wood covered with copper plate. The mask would have been worn with a costume of fiber net or animal fur.
Collectors
Captain and Mrs. Ryan J. McCombie of State College donated the majority of these Congo objects to the Matson Museum of Anthropology. They collected these items as a way of learning the language and culture of the local people during their stay in the region in the early 1980s.
Mr. Mano Eftimiadi donated two of the royal masks (Mwaash a mbooy and Ngaady a mwaash) and the Salampasu mask in honor of his wife Mrs. Catharine Lewis Eftimiadi (Liberal Arts Class of 1942).
